Race, Culture and Nation

THE METAPHYSICS OF RACE

"All men in each generation are not merely individuals; they are a branch in the tree of mankind."
- J.L. Hart 1

"All of these things have been accepted without question from time immemorial, and it has been ordinarily taken as a matter of course that one's attitude toward the stranger should be one of dislike, suspicion or hostility."
- Fairchild 2

"Denying itself personal and organic continuity, the state cannot allow its subject populations a mere basic solidarity. It therefore attempts to dissolve direct bonds within racial and ethnic groups by shuffling the groups together in forced contact, then structuring the uprooted and disorientated individuals by abstract arbitration. Integration of black and white children in American schools, for example, has behind it the same thought Charlemagne had when he dispersed the Saxons because he could not destroy their unity."
- Richard Swatzbaugh 3

"(R)acial prejudices reflect a positive and genuine conservative impulse; the desire to maintain the integrity of tribal modes. In simpler times there was a certain point in assuming that members of other races were threats to this integrity: it was often a simple fact…. In a sense, Hitlerism was a desperate and monstrous last stand for genealogical triumphalism: hence the violence of its appeal and opposition at a historical watershed."
- Joseph Sobran 4

Do Races Really Exist?

Do human races exist, and if they do, does race matter? Among the Left-wing dominated social sciences (i.e. sociology, cultural anthropology) and humanities, it is probably the case that the majority of American and other Western academics and associated intellectuals, hold that human races don't exist because they are a so-called "social construction." One can easily document contradictions and absurdities in this post-modern sociological literature. 5

For example, consider the logic of this position: races are a social construction, therefore races do not exist. However, racism does exist and is a cause of non-'politically correct' (pc) behavior (therefore, bad, bad) 6 But social classes are also a social construction, so by this logic, social classes do not exist either. So is science, logic, mathematics and reality a social construction - is even "social constructivism" a social construction? Thus by this anti-racist logic, nothing exists. This may seem to the sane to constitute a reductio ad absurdum of the anti-racist position, but many post-modernists and deconstructionists warm to such nihilism. But consider: If reality is a social construction and nothing exists beyond "The Text," then The Holocaust only exists as a social construction, and not beyond "The Text." 7

For the anti-racist race constructivist Matthew Jacobson, "race" is a "social fabrication" 8 In the U.S. white women can have black children, but a black woman can't have white children. Hence race is arbitrary. Jacobson quotes with approval George Schuyler's claim that the most Nordic of people can have "Negroid" lips. 9 The later claim about Nordic lips being thick like Negroes is false. Look and see, the former claim does not show that racial concepts are arbitrary. A white woman can have "black" children because her children would be "people of color" - to use the politically correct terminology. A black woman cannot have white children (through normal sexual reproductive means etc,) as again the children are "people of color." How is this arbitrary? It seems to be precisely what black activists say.

The same can be said for the attempt of K. Anthony Appiah 10 to show that races don't exist because multiracial couples may have children of various shades - a phenomenon easily explained on the basis of genetics (not sociology). Appiah also holds that racial concepts have a historical variability which renders them useless: he mentions the case of a Sicilian who 30 years ago on Ellis Island was classified as "white," while Northern Italians today "think of him, as he well knows, as of a different, darker razza than theirs." 11 Could it not be that the Ellis Island classification, primarily designed to fill America with non-Nordic swarthy "whites" is flawed and that the Northern Italians are right? As Norman Davies has said:
"The tall, blue-eyed, fair-skinned, platinum blonds of the so-called "Nordic race" which established itself in Scandinavia forms the only group remotely qualified for the label of "white." They bore little resemblance to the squat, brown-eyed, swarthy-skinned and black-haired people of the so-called "Mediterranean" or "Indo-Mediterranean Race" which dominated large parts of the South." 12
An over-statement of course, which caricatures the Nordic race, but the point is still well taken: "Whiteness" as a racial category is vague and admits of degrees. However it is still real.

The Boas Constrictor

A slightly more sophisticated critique of the race concept has been conducted by a series of left wing and Marxist anthropologists and biologists, the great majority (but by no means all, being Jews.) Franz Boaz (1858-1942) a Jewish activist became head of America's first department of anthropology at Columbia University. His school of largely Communist disciples include (the Gentile) Margaret Mead, and the Jews Ruth Benedict, Jerome Kagan, Otto Klineberg.) Boas, through his connections and support by the super-powerful American Jewish community, attacked both the concept of race and the nation of a racial restriction of immigration through quotas. His other disciples worked in these and related areas, such as Margaret Mead in the promotion of feminism and open sexual relationships. This conceptual swill and theoretical poison was pumped into the American academic system. Boas and his disciples virtually eliminated (for a time) the old hereditarian view that some individuals by virtue of their genetics, and some races, might be more competent, creative and intelligent than others, but this was a political victory, not a victory of argument and truth. However, Boas did not succeed all by himself. Social Darwinism gave an erroneous over-emphasis on individual competition to the exclusion of group competition. To some degree the left-wing critics were right in saying that social Darwinism wrote the logic of liberal capitalism into biological theory. Unfortunately, contemporary race theorists are operating within the same paradigm, and their work will be criticized in another paper. We will not dwell for long on the influence of Franz Boas as much has already been written about this. 13 The Left-wing text books and popular tracts used as brain-washing tools for generations of undergraduates typically use the tactic of citing absurdities, mistakes and isolated remarks to discredit a thinker. Boas' work is full of easy targets that should be assembled into a discrediting work. Although there appears to be some biological evidence for specific neo-Lamarckian effects, nothing that Boas predicted has been confirmed by modern biology. He claimed that the skull shape of immigrant Jews to America shifted away from that of their parents to the shape of people already in America - a claim quoted uncritically by his contemporary supporter
Steve Jones: "There are no separate groups within humanity." 14 The idea that round-headed Jews and swarthy Southern Italians had suddenly become more long-headed is utterly remarkable as it shows, if correct, that the most permanent character of human races can change. But Boas' results were never replicated and it is highly likely that he engaged in an academic fraud to defend Jewish migrants, whom he wanted to flood a largely Nordic America. The research results are simply not believable. For Boas "all complex activities are socially determined." 15 The statement taken literally is not only false, but manifestly absurd. He explicitly rejected the value of rationality over emotion. 16 But he knew well the value of power politics over reason, as Henry Garrett recognized in a 1962 letter to Carlton Putnam:
"I knew Franz Boas personally. I was able to observe his influence as founder of the Science of Anthropology in America… I was also able to observe the increasing degree of control exercised by the (Boas) cult over students and younger professors until fear of loss of jobs or status became common in the field of anthropology unless conformity to the racial equality dogma was maintained…. I can testify from repeated personal observation to the intimidation and to the pull of suppression which has fallen upon the academic world in the area of which I speak." 17

A good measure of the level of intellectual corruption and deception in the Boasian tradition can be seen in Margaret Mead's "use" of data in her study of Polynesia, "Coming of Age in Samoa" brilliantly exposed by Freeman. 18 Caution towards what Mead said about the relaxed sexual relationships in Samoa should have been exercised by all when Mead advanced her theory of prophylactic pregnancy: that a Samoan girl's promiscuity seemed to insure her against pregnancy. The concept is biologically absurd. Mead, according to Freeman, knew about cases of rape but said in her book that rape was completely foreign to Samoa. Isn't this intellectual fraud?

Mead claimed that Samoa was a peaceful society, and said that pre-Christian Samoans had no war gods - when in fact 70 of the main gods in pre-Christian Samoa (one half) were war gods. That fact was again well known and Mead almost certainly knew it and lied about it. On Ta'u, where Mead did her study, since the 1800's missionaries observed warfare with the neighboring island of Olosega. Such warfare occurred long before Mead's visit and continued long afterwards.19 Police records for 1964 to 1966 in Western Samoa show five times the rate of common assault than the U.S. in the same period. Serious assault was more than half that again of the U.S. rate over the same period. Western Samoa's murder rate in 1977 was almost half again as high as the U.S. rate at the same time. American Samoa's murder rate was over five and a half times that of the U.S. during a comparable period. Her work was like many dissertation projects: cooked up to suit the taste of her supervisor "big daddy" Franz who ensured her a place in his intellectual empire. Despite all this hard labor, Mead's work is being undone, not only by work showing her failings, 20 but also by evolutionary approaches to violence and sexual behaviour. 21

The greatest victory of the Boasians however was in the field of race research. "Ashley Montagu" was born in England as a Jew - Israel Ehrenburg, but changed his name several times adopting aristocratic Anglophile names. He dropped out of the University of London without getting his bachelor's degree and migrated to the U.S, where under Boas he received his Ph.D in 1936. He was appointed chairman of anthropology at Rutgers University, where he devoted his career to attempting to undermine the work of respected Gentile scholars, such as Carleton Coon.

Montagu was primarily responsible for drafting the 1950 UNESCO "Statement on Race" which promoted the absurd cultural determinism of Boas. It was so heavily criticized that by May 1950 UNESCO convened another panel to rewrite the statement. 22 If the original statement was viewed by the scientific community as deeply flawed, confused and based on value judgments, his second statement was equivocal. In any case the second statement did recognize that human races, conceived as having distinguishable primary heritable differences, did exist. Nevertheless, the first statement was used to deliberately crush racialist thinking among whites in preparation for smashing white societies by the invasion of colored immigrants that was to occur, and was occurring in Britain.

Montagu admired the Soviet Union and saw Soviet Russia as "the outstanding example of perfect management of ethnic group relations," as he put it. In a November 1947 article in the Negro Digest entitled "What Will the Negro Look Like in a Thousand Years from Today?" he urged a fusion between whites and Negroes to produce a healthy, more vigorous type of person, and to increase the range of beautiful types. Beauty of course, is in the eye of the conspirer.

Although it is typical of academics to blame Hitler for the eclipse of eugenics and race research, the Boasian and cultural determinist attack began long before Hitler rose to power. If there was no Hitler and no World War 11, it is clear that the assault on racialism and immigration restriction would have continued. It would have taken longer to have reached the point which we are today, but we would have still reached it. And without Hitler, there was a good chance that the Soviet Union may have crushed Europe. Even if this military defeat did not occur, the cultural defeat of the old order by Leftism in the European Universities would have occurred given the organization of Communists in making a long march through the institutions of society. Eysenck, Jensen and Shockley would still have faced persecution for their racial research. 23

The Boasian position of critique of racial research has been continued in a publicly prominent form by the Jews Stephen Jay Gould, 24 Steven Rose, Richard Lewantin and Leon Kamin. 25 These authors are all Marxists, but they never attempt to justify their Marxism. Although they make a selective use of intellectual history to discredit race research they never tell their readers that eugenics was popular with socialists and the left adopted by figures such as J.B.S. Haldane, George Bernard Shaw, Julian Huxley and H.J. Muller. 26 J.B.S. Haldane, a Marxist biologist said, as late as 1948;
"In many countries the poor breed much quicker than the rich, even when allowance is made for their high death rate. Thus the valuable genes making for ability, which bring economic success to their possessors, are getting rarer, and the average intelligence of the nation is declining." 27

Similar views were held by many other Marxists and Fabians. H.J. Lake said: "The different rates of fertility in the sound and pathological stocks point to a future swamping of the better by the worse. As a nation we are faced by race suicide."28 For Leftist psychologist Havelock Ellis, the "unfit" should be sterilised.29 Feminist Margaret Sanger's American Birth Control League had as her slogan, "To Breed a Race of Thoroughbreds."30

Stephen Jay Gould, who died in May 2002, attempted to discredit hereditarianism by what has become something of a common strategy of showing unfavorable connections - usually in some way to Hetaerism, however Daniel Bennett has observed that Gould still accepted Marxism even after the fall of the Soviet Union and he based his evolutionary model of punctuational change upon Marxist beliefs, which Gould had a religious devotion to. 31 Marx although himself a Jew, was a virulent anti-Semite and had an anti-Jewish interpretation of history. Capitalism was viewed as a "Judaised" economy in his infamous essay "On the Jewish Question." It was Karl Marx and not Adolph Hitler who created the concept of "one enemy," where all evils can be heaped upon one entity. Marx subjected all newcomers to his movement to a phrenological examination of the bumps on their head as Fabian Laski confirms. 32 It is ironic that Jewish Marxists such as Gould ridicule hereditarianism because of his early associations with phrenology, when Marx himself was a follower. No word of course on this, though from these Marxist biologists.

The Left has, arguably, expressed a stronger anti-Semitism than the Right, as the Right has been tied to Christianity and conservatism which has tendered to take the sharp edges off of any anti-Semitism. Saint Simon saw the Jew as "the very incarnation of the capitalist system of exploitation." Charles Faurier said that the Jews were "parasites, merchants, usurers," who "pillage the country like pirates and were guilty of mercantile depravities." 33 Louis Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), who originated the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat, saw the Jews as "an insatiably devastating element in all countries." And believed that "Semitism must therefore be eliminated from Aryan society." 34 Edmund Silberner, a Jewish writer noted that many great socialists were anti-Semites and that socialist anti-Semitism is almost as old as modern socialism. 35 But there is not a word about this in the works of Stephen Jay Gould. If one's mission is to expose racism, then why not the racism of these socialists?

Gould, Lewontin and Rose employ frequently the argumentum ad Hitler: If Hitler believed it then it must have been bad and wrong. But Hitler's political mentor was Dr. Karl Lueger, leader of the Christian Social Party. Hitler notes in Mein Kampf that he turned to Lueger's newspaper the Volksblatt which was violently anti-Semitic. Lueger's party was a direct descendant of Archbishop Ketteler's Christian Socialist movement, in turn based upon the socialism of the Jew Ferdinand Lassalle (characterized by Marx in a letter to Engels in 1861 as a "Jewish nigger"; Engels described him as a "greasy Jew") 36 So by the argumentum ad Hitler - socialism led to National Socialism… so the work of Gould, Lewontin and Rose must be also discredited.

In his mature years, race for Marx had the status of an independent variable. Writing in a New York Tribune article of 1853 he observed that in the "silent revolution" taking place, "races too weak to master the new conditions of life must give way." 37 Marx did not believe in the equal rights of all races as the socialists of today do. "Ahistorical" people should be conquered by superior nations, and deserved to be eliminated. Engels looked forward to the Slavs being exterminated. Marx also wanted the Latins eliminated in a race war. Weyl has said:
"Race hatred and race oppression, the justification of foreign conquest and of white colonialism, the denial of the right of non-white peoples to national independence, relentless terror against nations, peoples and races whom Marx and Engels despised, a policy of war and conquest that would ensure that other such peoples "disappear from the face of the earth" - these ideas constitute a generally suppressed portion of the enormous literacy legacy which Marx and Engels left behind them." 38

Marx also accepted the racial theories of Pierre Trémaux, that the Negro was the product of de-evolution or degeneration. The Negro, for Marx and Engels, was always a "nigger". Engels regarded all "niggers" as "idiots." No comments like this were ever made by philosophers such as David Hume or Kant who did regard Negroes as inferior intellectually to whites; even so, still wrote in a dignified and respectful tone. Not so Marx, who was clearly a race hater. Marx and Engels both defended slavery in America as progressive, being necessary for modern civilization. Engels himself spoke of the "superior development of Aryans" in "The Origin of the Family" (1885). The Aryan superiority theme, one dear to the heart of Hitler, was a popular one in 19th and 20th century socialist thought, to be found in "red racists" such as Albert Regnard, Gustav Rouanet, Edmund Picard and George Bernard Shaw. These men were perhaps more intensively racist than J.A. Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain. 39 But not a word about this from the Marxist biologists.

Arguments Against Race

"Geneticists believe… that heredity imposed itself on man like ancient fate, and that the salvation of the race lies, not in education, but in eugenics."
- Alex Carrel. 40

Races, it is said by some Jewish biologists, have fuzzy boundaries, so the category is empty. 41 However, as philosophers since the ancient Greeks have recognized, all objects outside of mathematics and logic are vague. By this argument nothing would exist - no Marxists, no social classes and no oppressed minorities. 42 Another objection to the race concept borders on the incoherent. John Vandermeer in his politically correct textbook - Reconstructing Biology: Genetics and Ecology in The New World Order 43 says, "our criticism of races is not biological at all. Blacks having dark skin is of as much interest as blue-eyed people have blue eyes." 44 That "Blacks" have dark skin is by no means a tautology: the question at issue is how did dark-skin arise and what biological point does it serve? 45

Another interpretation of this argument is that race is only "skin deep." But we know that this is wrong, wrong, wrong. Racial differences exist in bone structure and the morphology of the teeth, key aspects of forensic anthropology. 46 A HIV resistant gene is said to be common in Northern European people, but declines in frequency in the south of Europe and is absent in Asians and Africans. This is due to the absence of the delta 32 cherrnnokine receptor from the CCRS allele.

The ABO blood group system is common to all races as egalitarians assert, but it is also found in other mammalian species. But it is now known that there are more systems of blood classification than ABO and many isolated populations have rare and unique blood group polymorphisms. The gene Fya of the Duffy blood group is strictly Caucasian in origin. The Negro gene Fy of the Duffy blood group system is different to that of other races. Negroes also have the world's highest frequency of type P blood, with 80 per cent being found in Africa. All Caucasian blood contains anti-U factor (an organic chemical), while some Negroes have it (typically of mixed blood) and others don't. The Rh blood group system clearly discriminates between races. The unique African Rh positive substance Ro or cDe is unlike the Rh positive substances of other races and 65 per cent of Negroes have this. The distribution of the other Rh types in the remaining 35 per cent of the Black African population occurs in proportions different from those of other races. Negro/chimpanzee blood similarities also exist with respect to A1,2 (a blood type seldom found in Caucasoids), anti-U and Rh-Hr (an antigen of the Rhesus blood group). 47 Only Blacks have U negative blood, only Whites Vel negative or Lan negative blood. No U negative White has ever been found. 48

For Lewontin, even if race differences exist this still does not prove that races exist because the average difference between the (hypothetical) races is less than the differences between individuals. 49 This is true in part but beside the point. The same argument would apply between genera or even between taxonomic families such as dogs and cats for some traits. Recently it has been discovered that there are really two species of African elephant, but only minute physical differences differentiate them, thus there are more differences between the races of man than there are between certain species of animals. Lewontin, as pointed out in the paragraph above on the blood group material, is simply wrong about his genetics. Marxism can cloud even a bright mind.

The population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is of the "races don't exist school". 50 However as many reviewers have noted, this is just a p.c. filter that enables his work to be funded. His genetic work has resulted in a map which clearly shows the differences between Africans, Caucasoids, Mongoloids and Australian Aborigines and he put this colored map on the cover of his magnum opus - The History and Geography of Human Genes. 51

Craig Ventor of the Human Genome Project also made headlines when he said that his map of the human genetic code ruled out any link between human genes and ethnicity. Humans of course differ from Africa's chimpanzee and bonobo by about 1.6 per cent of our DNA. Humans also share at least 18,000 genes with the dog. By this molecular argument, the apes, and probably dogs should join the human "family." Chimpanzees, apparently can "speak" English using a computer, so if racial differences don't matter, by reductio why should species have differences? 52 Elsewhere we will advance some criticisms against the molecular turn in biology which has seemingly ended morphological analysis. According to molecular biology, cows are more closely related to dolphins than to horses - this is an observation clearly contrary to morphological analysis and traditional evolutionary thought and shows a clear limitation of the approach. 53

Conclusion

In this essay we have not mentioned or examined alleged race differences in IQ, personality and other higher characteristics, as those issues will in part, be looked at elsewhere. Here, we have argued that human races clearly do exist and are as real as any other object in science. The geneticist Fritz Lenz was of the view that the Linnaean theory that all men belong to a single species is incorrect. 54 Thus animals such as the East African Zebra Equus quagga are divided into four distinct species which generally don't interbreed under natural conditions. Non-trivial physical differences separate animals into different species, but not humans. This is clearly arbitrary. Further, as Lenz argued, "attempts to restrict racial differences to physical differences is both arbitrary and scientifically unjustifiable." Linnaeus expressly included psychical differences in his diagnoses. Psychical hereditary differences are much more important than physical differences. 55 Finally, Sarich and Miele in Race: The Reality of Human Difference have argued at length that human racial differences exceed those for other non-domesticated species and that morphological differences between human races are comparatively greater than that used by taxonomists to differentiate two chimpanzee species. 56 Human diversity more closely parallels dogs than apes. Race is therefore a reality.

NOTES
1. J.L. Hart, Prometheus, Eugenic Manifesto, (P.O. Box 72, New Concord, KY, 1997), p.28. Hart's excellent book is concerned with the impending destruction of civilization by the breeding of less favored races.
2. Henry Pratt Fairchild, Race and Nationality As Factors in American Life, (Ronald Press, New York, 1947), p.6.
3. Richard G. Swartzbaugh, The Mediator: His Strategy for Power, (Howard Allen, Cape Canaveral, 1973) p.4.
4. Joseph Sobran, Single Issues: Essays on the Crucial Social Questions, (The Human Life Press, New York, 1985), p.44.
5. On the race-as-a-social construction see: N. Zack, Philosophy of Science and Race, (Routledge, New York, 2002); H.A. Giroux, "White Squall: Resistance and the Pedagogy of Whiteness," Cultural Studies, vol.11, no.3, 1997, pp.376-389; R. Dyer, White, (Routledge, New York, 1997); J. Gabriel, Whitewash: Racialized Politics and the Media, (Routledge, New York, 1998); R. Frankenberg, White Women: Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness, (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1993); F.Pfeil, White Guys: Studies in Postmodern Domination and Difference, (Verso, London 1995); R. Frankenberg (ed.), Displacing Whiteness: Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism, (Duke University Press, Durham, 1997); D.T. Goldburg, "The Semantics of Race," Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.15, 1992, pp.543-569; L. Gannett, "The Biological Reification of Race," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, vol.55, 2004, pp.323-345. Goldberg sees race as a "virtually vacuous reflective of dominant social discourses, forging self - and other - ascriptive identities of anonymity, but at the same time defining inclusions and exclusions in respect of the body politics." (p.543) But if race is a virtually vacuous reflection of society (whatever that means) how can race define the political inclusions and exclusions? How does a nullity have such causal powers? An exception to the race-as-a-social-construction view is Lawrence A. Hirschfield's Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture, and the Child's Construction of Human Kinds, (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996). Racial thinking "is the product of a special-purpose cognitive competence for understanding and representing human kinds." Racial thinking is deeply grounded in our minds. Children do not believe that race is skin-deep or superficial but rather "race is an intrinsic, immutable, and essential aspect of a person's identity." (p.xi) For a defense of the race concept see V. Sarich and F. Miele, Race: The Reality of Human Differences, (Westview Press, Boulder, 2004).
6. P.L. Van Den Berghe, "Does Race Matter?" Nations and Nationalism, vol.1, no.3, 1995, pp.357-368, says that racism has a biological cause: fitness maximization through nepotism. However, he believes that human races do not exist (i.e. in the sense of well-defined subspecies.) But if there are no races, there can be no racism either, only nepotism, so Van Den Berghe is throwing the baby out with the bath water. Sociobiologist W.D. Hamilton in Narrow Roads of Gene Land, (W.H. Freeman, Oxford, 1996), p.16 sees as "both unnatural and appalling" a "racially uniform population of humans" but elsewhere he maintains that racial discrimination is likely to have a genetic foundation. W.D. Hamilton, "Innate Social Aptitudes of Man: An Approach from Evolutionary Genetics," in R. Fox (ed.), Biosocial Anthropology, (Malaby Press, 1975), p.134.
7. See S. Harding (ed), The Racial Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1993), where arguments from epistemological skepticism are used to establish the social constructivism thesis, e.g. p.484. Scientific racism encompasses the entire edifice of enlightenment thought. If a White man thought it and did it, that's "racist; but if a lesbian feminist did it, well that's just peachy-cream.
8. M.F. Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, (Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. 1998).
9. Above p.123.
10. K. Anthony Appiah, "Against Races," in K.A. Appiah and A. Gutman, Color Consciousness: The Political Morality of Race, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1996), pp.30-74.
11. Ibid p.31.
12. Norman Davies, Europe: A History, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996), p.50.
13. See for example G.W. Stocking, Race, Culture and Environment, (Free Press, New York, 1968), pp.161-194. E.F. Torrey, Freudian Fraud, (Harper Collins, New York, 1992) gives a good account of Boas' battle against the Anglo-Nordicist Madison Grant. In 1927 Grant said to Henry Osborn that the Jews were putting out propaganda to break down the Immigration Restriction Act: "This kind of sob stuff, unfortunately, is very effective among our sentimentalists." (pp.84-85). Page 103 has an interesting story. On December 29, 1942, Boas gave a luncheon at Columbia University for a French Jew who had fled the Nazis. Boas stood up, wine in hand and said: "I have a new theory about race….", then paused momentarily and fell backwards, dead.
14. S. Jones, The Language of the Genes: Biology, History and the Evolutionary Future, (Flamingo, London, 1994), 247,249.
15. Franz Boas, "Eugenics," The Scientific Monthly, vol.3, 1916, pp.471-478.
16. Above p.475.
17. Carlton Putnam, Race and Reason: A Yankee View, (Howard Allen, Cape Canaveral, 1977), p.41.
18. D. Freeman, The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of her Samoan Research, (Westview Press, Boulder, 1999).
19. Above p.105.
20. In Mead's study Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies, based upon New Guinea research, Mead searched for more evidence that culture determines sex roles or gender. Although she said in her report that all three societies supported "stereotypical sex roles," Mead ultimately ignored her own evidence and took the work as constituting further proof of cultural determinism.
21. Randy Thornhill, "The Biology of Human Rape," Jurimetrics, vol.39. Winter 1999, pp.137-147; R. Wrangham and D. Peterson, Demonic Males; Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, (Bloomsbury, London, 1996.)
22. P. Shipman, The Evolution of Racism, (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1994), p.166.
23. Roger Pearson, Race, Intelligence and Bias in Academe, (Scott-Townsend Publishers, Washington DC, 1991).
24. Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1981).
25. S. Rose, R. Lewontin and L. Kamin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature, (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1987).
26. H.J. Muller, "Social Biology and Population Improvement," Nature, vol.144, 1939, pp.521-522.
27. J.B.S. Haldane, "Biology and Marxism," The Modern Quarterly, vol.3, 1948, pp.2-11, cited p.9. and The Inequality of Man and Other Essays (London), 1932). See generally D. Paul, "Eugenics and the Left," Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.45, 1984, pp.567-590.
28. H.J. Laski, "The Scope of Eugenics," Westminster Review, no.174, 1910, pp. 25-34, cited p.34.
29. H. Ellis, "The Sterilization of the Unfit," Eugenics Review, October 1909, pp. 203-206.
30. D.M. Kennedy, Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger, (Yale University Press, Newhaven, 1970).
31. D.C. Dennett, Darwin's Dangerous Idea, (Allen Lane/The Penguin Press, London, 1995); R. Dawkin Unweaving the Rainbow, (Penguin, London, 1998); K. Sterelny, Dawkins vs. Gould: Survival of the Fittest, (Icon/Totem Books, Cambridge, 2001). Gould's work is full of bizarre statements and views, much more extreme than the racialists he criticized. He rejected the idea of progress as an "intractable idea" in need of replacement. He saw humans as an insignificant mammal species. He also said that the mind was an illusion produced by the brain. So much for "extremism." It would be difficult to think of more "extreme" contrary-to-science positions. For excellent criticisms of Gould's work, see B.D. Davis, Storm Over Biology, (Prometheus Books, New York, 1986); J.B. Carroll, "Reflections on Stephen Jay Gould's The Mismeasure of Man," Intelligence, vol.21, no.2, 1995, pp.121-134.
32. H. Laski, Karl Marx - An Essay, (Fabian Society, London, 1925), p.21.
33. Z. Dobbs (et al), The Great Deceit: Social Pseudo-Sciences, (Veritas Foundation, New York, 1964, pp.120-121.
34. Ibid p.122.
35. E. Silberner, "The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism," Scripta Hierosdymitana (Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1956), pp.378-379.
36. See I. Oxaal, "Marxism and the Sociology of Racism: Two Historical Variants," in M. Shaw (ed), Marxist Sociology Revisited: Critical Assessments, (Macmillan, London, 1985), pp.143-180, cited pp.175-176.
37. L.S. Feuer, "Karl Marx and the Promethean Complex," Encounter, vol.31, 1968, pp.15-32.
38. N. Weyl, Karl Marx: Racist, (Arlington House, New York, 1979), p.23.
39. H. Hirsch, "The Ugly Marx: Analysis of an "Outspoken Anti-Semite," Philosophical Forum, vol.8, 1978, pp.150-162; R.Grooms, "The Racism of Marx and Engels," The Barnes Review, Oct.1996, pp.3-8.
40. A. Carrel, Man: The Unknown, (Hamish Hamilton, London, 1935), p.251; R. Lynn, Eugenics: A Reassessment, (Praeger, Westport, 2001).
41. See Steven Rose, Lifelines: Biology, Freedom, Determinism, (Allen Lane, London, 1997), p.37. Rose also says: "It is not clear that homosexual men and women necessarily have fewer children than heterosexuals, as few fall exclusively into either category." (p.211). Now it is true that there are married homosexuals and bi-sexuals and a whole range of permutations. Yet no reliable statistics on the number of homosexuals puts the statistic above 5 per cent of the population. Even if the figure was 20 per cent, Rose's statement would still be wrong.
42. The vagueness argument against race also appears in S. Jones, In The Blood, (Harper Collins Publishers, London, 1996) and R.C. Lewontin, The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology, (Penguin Books, London, 1993).
43. J. Vandermeer, Reconstructing Biology: Genetics and Ecology in the New World Order, (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1996).
44. Ibid p.125.
45. Stephen T. Asma in "Metaphors of Race: Theoretical Presuppositions Behind Racism," American Philosophical Quarterly, vol.32. no.1, 1995, pp.13-29, in footnote 5, p.28 smugly considers a skin cancer scenario. That with a skin cancer rate of 14 out of 1,000 Whites dying, it would take 800 generations "for Whites to become Black. This should give the South African White-supremacist some pause." A similar argument for White genocide was made by D.A. Bush in Harper's Magazine of December 1993 - as if Whites could not use clothing and environmental protection against UV radiation. In any case, melanin is not a good protector against UV radiation. It is thought that the "sticky" molecule of melanin is an adaption to fighting infectious organisms in the dirty environment of the tropics. Insects use melanin in this way. In other words, black skin may be an adaptation to disease.
46. N.J. Sauer, "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying Them?" Social Science and Medicine, vol.34, no.2, 1992, pp.107-111; M. Trotter (et al) "Densities of Bones of White and Negro Skeletons," Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. vol.42, 1960, pp.50-58.
47. Wiener and F.B. Gordon, "The Blood Groups of Chimpanzees, ABO Groups and MN Types," American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol.18, no.4, 1960, pp.301-311; Roger Pearson, Blood Groups and Race, (Noontide Press, Los Angeles, 1966). On the possibility of classifying races by blood groups see A.G. Mourant, The Distribution of Human Blood Groups, (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1954).
48. W.R. Boggs, "Race and Physical Differences," American Renaissance, vol.3. no.12, December 1992, pp.1, 3-5.
49. R.C. Lewontin, "The Apportionment of Human Diversity," in T. Dobzhansky (et al eds.), Evolutionary Biology, vol.6, (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1972), pp.381-398. Racialists should adopt Amadon's rule: If 75 per cent of a population A differed in a given criterion from 97 per cent of a population B, then the populations are separate subspecies: D. Amadon, "The Seventy Five Percent Rule of Subspecies," Condor, vol.51, 1949, pp.250-258.
50. See L.L. Cavalli-Sforza and F. Cavalli-Sforza, The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution, (Helix Books, Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, 1995); L.L. Cavalli-Sforza, Genes, Peoples and Languages, (North Point Press, New York, 2000).
51. L.L Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi and A. Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1994).
52. J. Leake, "Scientists Teach Chimpanzee to Speak English," The Sunday Times July 25, 1999, p.1.
53. See R. Lewin, New Scientist, January 24, 1998, pp.36-40. M. Wadman, "Geneticists Struggle Towards Consensus on Place for 'Race'," Nature, vol.431, October 28, 2004, p.1026. The criticism made by some geneticists is that racial categories (e.g. "White") are not precise enough for the study of genetic diseases, and that "ancestry" should be used. All this means is that racial categories need subdivision, not that they should be abandoned. Political correctness rules even in genetics.
54. See R.F. Kuttner (ed.), Race and Modern Science, (Social Science Press, New York, 1967), pp.xxiv-xxv. For a view that Negroes and Northern Europeans belong to different "species" see R. Frenz, "The Racey Racist," Liberty Bell, vol.25, no.8. April 1988, pp.1-8. Whether such a view is inconsistent with Christianity is an interesting point.
55. Above (Kuttner), pp.xxiv-xxv.
56. Vincent Sarich and Frank Miele, Race: The Reality of Human Differences, (Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 2004), p.9.